Alternative Energy | Wind Energy | Small Hydropower | Geothermal Energy

USA production has declined by over 500 MW since the 1990s because of declines in steam output from the Geysers in the western USA.

On the other hand, electric power production from geothermal plants have increased by more than 50% since 1995 in Iceland, Portugal (Azores), Costa Rica, Russia, Indonesia, the Philippines, El Salvador and New Zealand. The growth in production over the past few years has resulted in significantly higher contributions to total power production in a number of countries.

Countries with Geothermal Electricity contributing significantly to National Supply
 

Source: Lund J; World Status of Geothermal Energy Use; Renew. Energy World (2000)

Methods of Production
Power is generated from geothermal hot water by:

1. The Flash Steam method, which involves the flashing of hot water (above 1750C) in a single or dual flash system to produce steam that drives a turbine.

2. The Binary-cycle method, which utilizes hot geothermal water to boil working fluids (between 1000C and 1750C) from which vapors, drive a turbine.

3. Dry Steam method, which waste steam is first cleaned to remove entrapped solids, and subsequently channeled to run a turbine.

The Jamaican Context
Based on the geological history of the country, the only area in Jamaica in which there is potential for geothermal power production, is the Blue Mountains. Significant work has not been done to discover, for example, where near-surface hot water sources may be located. However, the fact that in recent years a number of Latin American countries such as Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala have all been able to develop some of their geothermal resources augurs well for Jamaica. This is primarily because Latin American countries have been attempting to forge partnerships in energy matters with Jamaica and other Caribbean countries in recent times and it is conceivable that assistance can be forthcoming from some of these countries to assist in developing Jamaica's geothermal energy resources in the near future.


PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES OF SOME OF JAMAICA'S RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Very few formal resources studies have been done of the country's renewable energy sources but based on preliminary assessment of many of the major locations of these sources, it has been possible to make projections. Notwithstanding preliminary assessments, however, formal scientific measures will be used in the future as funds are realized, to derive fairly accurate projections of all of the country's usable renewable energy sources.

The following are preliminary estimates of the energy resources of wind, solar, biomass and small hydropower in Jamaica at the best of times, that were compiled by this Author:
A) BIOENERGY

(1) Biogas
a) SRC's traditional biogas digester       110,000 cu. m/yr - existing
                                                      20 x 106 cu. m/yr- projected (by SRC)
                                                      (i.e. 110 GWh/yr - projected)

(b) SRC's BST Unit                             5,500 cu. m/yr - existing
                                                      100 GWh/yr - projected (by SRC)

(2) Biomass
a) Fuelwood                                     211,000 tonnes/yr - existing
                                                     500,000 tonnes/yr - projected
                                                     (i.e. 2,360 GWh/yr - projected)

b) Charcoal                                      46,700 tonnes/yr - existing
                                                     150,000 tonnes/yr - projected
                                                     (i.e. 1,250 GWh/yr - projected)

c) Bagasse                                       298,000 tonnes/yr - existing
                                                     700,000 tonnes/yr - projected
                                                     (i.e. 2,916 GWh/yr - projected)

d) Solid Waste                                  730,000 tonnes/yr - projected
                                                     (i.e. 1,200 GWh/yr - projected)

Total Bioenergy                                      7,916 GWh/yr - projected                   

B) SOLAR ENERGY
(a) Solar water heating                      9.125 GWh/yr - existing
                                                     100 GWh/yr - projected

(b) Solar PV                                     9,636 GWh/yr - projected

Total Solar Energy                                 9, 736 GWh/yr - projected                  

C) SMALL HYDROPOWER
                                                   23.5 MW - existing
                                                   117.5 MW - projected
                                                   (i.e. 1,010 GWh/yr - projected)

Total Small Hydropower                     1,010 GWh/yr - projected                    

D) WIND POWER
                                                   195 kW - existing
                                                   150 MW - projected
                                                   (i.e. 1,290 GWh/yr - projected)

Total Wind Power                                1,290 GWh/yr - projected

General Assumptions Made
 

Biogas:

• Calorific Value = 20 MJ/m3

Biomass:

• Calorific value of fuelwood = 17MJ/Kg
• Calorific value of charcoal = 30MJ/Kg
• Calorific value of bagasse = 18MJ/Kg
• Calorific value of solid waste = 12MJ/Kg
• Only 50% of solid waste considered combustible; projected volume of solid waste is based on estimated daily collection by MPM and other collecting organizations located islandwide.

Solar Water heating:

• The average household uses 1,825 kWh/yr
• 5,000 systems are installed already
• Projection for 50,000 installed systems

Solar PV:

• Based on Dr. Chen's Solar Map of Jamaica, average insolation was assumed to be 4.8 kWh/m2/day
• Coverage was assumed to be 0.25% of the island.
• PV cell efficiency was assumed to be 20%.

ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
As countries move towards new stages of development and expansion of their economies more energy is required. This energy continues to be provided largely by the process of combustion in which primarily fossil fuels are converted to other forms of energy. In addition to other forms of energy such as electricity, combustion produces large amounts of greenhouse gases, which have built up over time and now pose a threat to the world's ability to remain sustainable in the future. The major potential damage to the environment afforded by the build up of greenhouse gases is climate change, mainly the warming of the planet with the consequences of rising sea levels, inconsistent weather patterns and disturbed ecosystems.

USA NATIONAL EMISSION FACTORS BY FUEL TYPE (Per kWh Sold)
 

Source: US EPA Lighting Upgrade Manual (1998)
 

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Concern about the visibly deteriorating world environment became a much laboured topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s to the point that the United Nations found it necessary to adopt the Convention known as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992. The Convention was opened for signature at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. Since its validation in 1994, over 180 countries of the world including Jamaica have become parties to the Convention.

The Convention sets the ultimate objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at safe levels, and these levels are meant to be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change. All countries that have become a party to the Convention therefore have a general commitment to address climate change, adapt to its effects, and report on the actions they are taking to implement the Convention.

Jamaica's activities towards meeting the UNFCCC targets
Jamaica has prepared its emissions inventories in an attempt to become one of the earliest developing countries to have complied with the requirements of the convention. The six major sectors that account for the country's greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions are:

• Energy
• Industrial Processes
• Solvents and other Products use
• Agriculture
• Land Use Change and Forestry
• Waste

The Energy and Industrial Processes sectors (particularly the energy sector) account for almost all of the country's GHG emissions. Emissions from these two sectors were determined and presented in a study by Claude Davis and Associates, on behalf of the Ministry of Water, in 2000. Since the Convention has based its targets on 1990 baseline emissions, the Jamaica study was intended to involve 1990 data, but after discovering that 1990 data in the country was incomplete and unreliable it was decided with the blessing of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to use 1994 emissions data.

The energy sector consists of energy industries (electricity generation and selected aspects of petroleum refining), manufacturing and construction, transport, commercial/institutional, residential, agriculture/forestry/fishing and other source categories. The industrial process sector consists of cement (non-combustion emissions), lime production, mineral products including glass production, asphalt roofing and paving, and food and beverage categories.

The Jamaica emissions have been predictably low with total energy emissions (1994) of CO2 being 8,182 Gigagrams (Gg), and total Industrial Processes CO2 being 379 Gg; and that for other GHG also relatively low. A summary of the country's emissions inventory is listed in the Appendices.

These low prevailing emissions inventories combined with installation of planned RET projects should help significantly to build the country's energy credits in the future.

Since the Earth Summit, Jamaica has also (1) established an Ambient Air Quality Standards Regulations (August 1996) and (2) established Stack Emission Targets/Standards for Major Industries in Jamaica. The Ambient Air Quality Standards, which were established from 1996 are constantly monitored by the NRCA. The Stack emissions standards on the other hand are at present in the draft stage and are not expected to be enforceable for at least another several months. These standards cover stack emission targets for existing sources and similar types of targets for new soures in all industries in general terms, but certain industries such as mineral industries are specifically addressed.

As can be expected the standards for new sources are more stringent than those for existing sources. For example, in the alumina sector SO2 level is to be equivalent to a maximum of 2.2% sulphur in residual (Nos 5 or 6) fuel oil based on plant wide SO2 emissions for new sources; whereas for existing sources it is up to 3% sulphur in heavy fuel oil.

Full enforcement of these measures will put Jamaica in an enviable position alongside some of the most environmentally conscious countries in the world and should lead the way towards achieving the provisions of the UNFCCC convention ahead of time.
 

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